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As scientists who study mountain snow, water resources and the human impact of warming winters, we see winter\u2019s changes through data: rising temperatures, shrinking snowpack, shorter snow seasons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Olympic athletes experience changing winter conditions personally, in ways the public and scientists rarely do. Lack of snowfall and more frequent rain affect when and where they can train, how they train and how dangerous the terrain can become.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
We talked with Brennan and cross-country skiers Ben Ogden and Jack Young as they were preparing for the 2026 Winter Games. Their experiences reflect what many athletes describe: a sport increasingly defined not by the variability of natural winter but by the reliability of industrialized snowmaking.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What the cameras don\u2019t show<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Snowmaking technology makes it possible to create halfpipes for freestyle snowboarding and skiing competitions. It also allows for races when natural snow is scarce \u2013 the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing relied entirely on machine-made snow for many races.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
However, machine-made snow creates a very different surface than natural snow, changing the race.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In clouds, each unique snowflake shape is determined by the temperature and humidity. Once formed, the iconic star shape begins to slowly erode as its crystals become rounded spheres. In this way, natural snow provides a variety of textures and depths: soft powder after a storm, firm or brittle snow in cold weather, and slushy, wet snow during rain or melt events.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Machine-made snow varies less in texture or quality. It begins and ends its life as an ice pellet surrounded by a thin film of liquid water. That makes it slower to change, easier to shape, and, once frozen, it hardens in place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n When artificial snow is being made, the sound is piercing \u2013 a high-pitched hiss roars from the pressurized nozzles of snow guns. These guns spew water mixed with compressed air, and it freezes upon contact with the cold air outside, creating small, dense ice particles. The drops sting exposed skin, as one of us, Agnes Macy, knows well as a former competitive skier.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Snow machines then push out artificial snow onto the racecourse. Often, the trails are the only ribbons of snow in sight \u2013 a white strip surrounded by brown mud and dead grass.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u201cCourses built for natural snow feel completely different when covered in man-made snow,\u201d Brennan, 37, said. \u201cThey\u2019re faster, icier, and carry more risk than anyone might imagine for cross-country skiing.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n There\u2019s nothing quite like skiing on fresh snow. After a storm brings a blanket of light, fluffy powder, it can almost feel as though you\u2019re floating. The snow is forgiving.<\/p>\n\n\n\n On artificial snow, skiers carry more speed into downhill runs. Downhill racers may relish the speed, but cross-country skis don\u2019t have metal edges like downhill skis do, so step-turning or skidding around fast, icy corners can make an athlete feel out of control. It \u201crequires a different style of skiing, skill sets and strengths than I grew up learning,\u201d Brennan said.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Athletes must adjust their technique and prepare their skis differently, depending on the snow conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n At elite levels, this is science. Snow crystal morphology, temperature, ski base material and structure, ski stiffness, skier technique and environmental conditions all interact to determine an athlete\u2019s speed. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<\/a>
\n\n\n\n\u2018They\u2019re faster, icier and carry more risk\u2019<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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\n\n\n\nHow athletes adapt, with help from science<\/h2>\n\n\n\n